Empire of the Mind – Chinese mind, Chinese empire

Most people with even a bit of familiarity with Chinese history will recognise that Emperor Ying Zheng 赢政, also known as Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇, was the first emperor of China. They also know that before the Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC) was established, there were two earlier Chinese dynasties, one the Eastern Zhou (771–256 BC) and before that the Western Zhou (1046–771 BC). Why is it that these two dynasties, which lasted a lot longer than Qin, are not regarded as empires? Why are their rulers not regarded as emperors? Why is only Qin Shi Huang recognised as the first emperor?

The first thing to note is that round 1000 BC, the population of China was only a tiny fraction of what it was during the Qin Dynasty.

We often translate 国 as country, but in those days, a 国 was more like city state. The nerve centre was a walled capital, home of the leader and it played the role of an administrative and trading centre. Outside the walls were cultivated fields which produced food to feed the population. The people who worked on the fields had to pay taxes to the leader who in turn provided protection for the residents. The fields could be buffered from other states by forests and mountains. Imagine a simulated computer game where you can start cultivating, building, trading and building an army. That was the definition for 国. In those days.

When communications were primitive and a dynasty was expanding, the leader instituted a feudal system called 封建. Titles were bestowed upon friends and relatives and these aristocrats would be tasked to build up their respective territories. The administrators of the satellite city states were called 诸侯 which can be roughly translated as duke or marquis. Western Zhou looked something like this:

It looks spotty and the total population was probably less than 10 million. The concept of 国 was still a small city state. Leaders of these territories answered to the man they regarded as the Zhou Son of Heaven 周天子. He sat on the throne at the capital of Feng Hao 丰镐 and received tributes from the dukes. With great distances and primitive communication methods, these dukes and marquis were practically autonomous.

There would be 12 Zhou kings before a rebellion occurred. The last Zhou king, 周幽王 came to the throne after deposing the rightful crown prince. He was killed in an ensuing rebellion. A gang of 诸侯 installed the “rightful” king at a new city called Luo Yi 洛邑. It would be the beginning of a new dynasty called Eastern Zhou (771–256 BC). In the aftermath of its predecessor’s fall, a period of chaos ensued. Dukes started fighting among themselves. Some territories expanded rapidly. Some were absorbed by others. Population numbers soared. It was the beginning of the Spring Autumn Period 春秋. The city states were so numerous and some were so transient, lasting only months, that it’s practically impossible to list them all accurately today. 5 major hegemons emerged. They were the states of Zheng 郑, Qi 齐, Jin 晋, Qin 秦, Chu 楚. Of these states, the rulers of the Zheng and Jin were breakaway members of the Zhou family (surname Ji 姬).

The population had swelled to 30 million. Almost every piece of land was occupied. The original kingdom of Zhou is that orange patch near the centre. Not surprisingly, the Zhou king had become completely powerless to stop all the fighting.

While most people can see nothing but chaos during this period, it is important to note that ironically, this was the time when the bulk of Chinese values and philosophies as we know them were first conceptualised. Taoism, Confucianism and Mohism all originated during the Spring and Autumn period. I shall come back to this in a moment.

This tumultuous period lasted until 7 states that had managed to absorb the smaller states were left standing. Different dukes appointed different Zhou Sons of Heaven until none was left after 256 BC. Interestingly, the powerless Eastern Zhou Dynasty had as many as 25 farcical Sons of Heaven.

After the Zhou Dynasty was completely wiped out in 256 BC, the dukes started identifying themselves as kings and historians mark this as the beginning of the period of the Warring States 战国 (256-221 BC). The map below shows what remained of the Eastern Zhou (Luoyang) just before it was completely wiped out.

Again, the period of the Warring States was not just about chaotic fighting. Each state experimented with different systems of government. Bold social reforms took place until one system gave the state of Qin an enormous advantage over the rest.

Spring Autumn Ideologies

Chinese values as we know them were first conceptualised during the Spring and Autumn Period (771-475 BC) and underwent little change throughout Chinese history. Three main schools of thought were already established by the period of the Warring States (475-221 BC).

Confucianism 儒家

Founded by the great sage Confucius (551-479 BC), the Confucian school of thought advocates the following core virtues and concepts

Ren 仁 (benevolence): The supreme virtue, embodying loving kindness and compassion.

Li 礼 (propriety/rituals): Refers to etiquette in social situations and the performance of rituals that show deference towards one’s ancestors and superiors.

Yi 义 (righteousness): The ability to discern right from wrong and to act morally even at the expense of the self.

Zhi 智(wisdom): The quality of understanding circumstances and exercising good judgement.

Xin 信 (honesty/integrity): To be truthful and keeping promises. Confucian practitioners followed strict protocols in their daily undertakings. There were elaborate rituals for birthday celebrations, weddings and funerals. Sons had to behave like sons towards their fathers. Subjects had to behave like subjects towards the ruler. Women had to behave a certain way towards men and vice versa. Confucians portrayed themselves as gentlemen and loyal subjects. They carried themselves with great pride. They also take great pride in their ancestors and worship them like deities. Confucius believed that shame was what drove ethical behaviour and not punishment. He lamented that people no longer believed in the mandate of heaven attributed to Zhou kings.

Confucius served in the state of Lu 鲁, but was later disappointed with the ruler’s indulgent ways. He travelled to many other states but found no employment. He returned to the state of Lu where he spent the rest of his life teaching. Two outstanding students from the Confucian school were Mencius and Xun Zi. Their teachings were Confucian in essence but with some modifications.

Taoism 道家

Founded by a little known sage by the name of Lao Zi (571-471 BC), Taoist philosophy is based on observable and imaginary forms, structures and forces that explain the way of the universe.

Core Concepts

The Tao 道 (or Dao): The workings of the universe follows fixed patterns of change and progression.

Wu Wei 无为 (Effortless Action): Going with the flow of the universe and not against it.

Harmony with nature: Respect nature and not try to conquer it out of greed.

Frugality: Understand the nature of things and living frugally.Unlike Confucius, Lao Zi never sought employment under a duke. His philosophy was meant for the common man. Nevertheless, political theorists influenced by Lao Zi have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained approach to statecraft, either for ethical and pacifist reasons, or for tactical ends. Unlike the classy and elaborate Confucianists, Taoists were simple, frugal and self-effacing people. They had rather easygoing lifestyles and went about their daily lives without much protocols or taboos. Lao Zi was the founder of Taoism, but he made no attempt to deify or immortalise himself. In contrast, Confucius’ family tree is being updated even today.

Mohist 墨家

Mohism is perhaps the only Spring Autumn philosophy which was practically abandoned by future dynasties. Most Mohists were artisans. They stood against Confucianists who loved music and elaborate ceremonies. In contrast, Mohists were simple people like the Taoists. They were often blacksmiths and carpenters. They were often called upon to build war machines – something which went against their principles unless the machines were used for defence.

Key aspects of Mohism:

1. Universal Love: While Confucianism emphasised familial, tribal and organisational cohesion, Mohism encouraged practitioners to love and respect regardless of rank or tribe.

2. Consequentialism: Mohists defined morality based on consequences. Beneficial actions were moral. Damaging actions were immoral.

3. Pacifism: Mohists opposed offensive warfare and aggression, advocating for peace and the welfare of society.

4. Rationalism and Science: Mohists discouraged rituals, prayers and worship. They invented tools and machines to better their lives.

5. Critique of Confucianism: Mohists challenged the latter’s focus on relationships defined by hierarchy. They found Confucian rituals to lack pragmatism.

6. Spiritual Beliefs: Mohists believed in a personal god who desired righteousness and loved the common people.

One of the first to recognise the inadequacies of the three schools of thought was Li Kui 李悝。An artisan who built hydraulic machines, Li Kui’s talents were noticed by the duke of Wei who appointed him as chancellor.

While in office since 422 BC, Li Kui robustly implemented reforms based on principles of legalism and bureaucracy. The main tenets of Li Kui’s reforms were:

1. The law as a universal guideline for social conduct instead of morals, customs, ethics and rituals.

2. Agrarian production, meritocratic and bureaucratic government and an active role of the state in economic and social affairs – proved an inspiration for later generations of reform-minded thinkers.

When Gongsun Yang (later known as Shang Yang) sought service in Qin, three decades after Li Kui’s death, he brought with him a copy of the Book of Law, which was eventually adapted and became the legal code of Qin.

Many scholars in Wei subscribed to Li Kui’s school of thought. Among them was a lowly official by the name of Gongsun Yang. On his deathbed, prime minister Gongshu Cuo 公叔痤 urged the duke of Wei to let the minister’s secretary succeed him. The duke thought that his dying prime minister had to be delirious.

“My lord, if you don’t promote Gongsun Yang 公孙鞅, you must kill him. If he doesn’t serve Wei, the state he’ll eventually serve will become our biggest nightmare.”

The duke of Wei did not believe the words of his dying prime minister.

Making Qin Great Again

From 475 BC, the territory of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty was gradually being obliterated. The position of Zhou king became farcical as former states grew to become kingdoms in their own right. The states fought among themselves for ultimate hegemony, paying little regard for the dynasty which would fade into oblivion circa 256 BC.

Qin Xiao Gong 秦孝公(381–338 BC) was the ruler of the state of Qin when Eastern Zhou was in its last legs. By the time he ascended the throne, the states had already been autonomous and at war with one another for 100 years.

By today’s standards, Qin Xiao Gong was a good ruler who was loved by his people. Following Confucian principles, he extended benevolence to his officials, aided widows and orphans, recruited warriors, enforced merit-based rewards and promoted education for the general population. Qin territory was substantial, but it faced frequent threats from Wei, Han, Zhao and Chu who conveniently formed alliances to invade Qin. Qin Xiao Gong was disillusioned with the values and ideals he adopted in governing his state and decided that he had to do something. He issued a recruitment notice calling for talented individuals to present strategies and ideologies for enriching and strengthening the state of Qin.

One of those who heeded the call was a man by the name of Gongsun Yang 公孙鞅, a lowly and disgruntled official from the state of Wei. Believing that he was destined for greater things and attracted by Qin Xiao Gong’s offer, he travelled to the state of Qin. Unable to gain access into the palace, he knocked on the door of a eunuch by the name of Jing Jian 景监.

“Welcome to Qin, Master Gongsun. But what can you bring to the table?”

“I can help His Lordship with the administration of his state.”

“Please elaborate”

Gongsun Yang presented his CV. He was well-versed in various systems of government. He was also a secretary of a Wei minister. Jing Jian was impressed with Gongsun’s knowledge of history. He gave his theories on the rise and fall of kingdoms and stressed the importance of governance and establishing a solid core before territorial expansion.

Satisfied with the candidate from Wei, Jing Jian escorted Gongsun Yang into the palace to meet Qin Xiao Gong. Gongsun wasted no time in presenting his ideology starting with the Way of the Emperor (Taoist principles). After a while, Qin Xiao Gong yawned. At his next presentation, he introduced the Way of the King (Confucian principles). Again, Qin Xiao Gong dozed off.

“I’ve been reading history, ethics and Confucian principles since I was a kid. There is nothing new or instructive about your presentation. Your strategy of cultivating society before territorial expansion doesn’t appeal to me. We are constantly at war. We share borders with several states which are always tempted to form alliances against us. If we don’t keep expanding, attrition will certainly decimate our state.”

Gongsun Yang’s face turned pale. He didn’t want to travel all the way back to Wei empty-handed. He promised that his next presentation would be different and decided to tweak his ideology on the fly. The next presentation would be Way of the Hegemon 霸道. This time, Qin Xiao Gong sat up and listened intently. Qin Xiao Gong was reminded that his ancestor Qin Mu Gong 秦穆公 was one of the 5 Hegemons.

Gongsun realised that Qin Xiao Gong had no interest in values and principles of government. He wanted actionable policies that would yield fast and concrete results. Gongsun saw through the ruler of Qin’s ambition. Having been bullied all those years, he longed to be the bully at last. He was not in the least offended when told that he had been doing things wrong. He wanted to make quick and radical reforms. He believed that the radical policies put forward by Gongsun Yang would make Qin the most powerful among the warring states.

Gongsun Yang heaved a sigh of relief. He got his job. The reforms which Qin Xiao Gong went on to implement in the state would set a new course for Chinese history.

The Debate

Gongsun Yang almost had the complete trust of Qin Xiao Gong, but many Qin officials were not keen to adopt the reforms proposed by him. In 359 BC, the stage was set for a robust debate. Nobles in particular, were against the reforms. They were represented by two speakers, Gan Long 甘龍 and Du Zhi 杜摯. Du Zhi was adamant about preserving customs of rites and propriety. He cautioned that “if there is not a hundredfold yield, one does not change the standard; if a vessel has not yielded a tenfold use of its value, one does not discard it” 利不百，不變法；功不十，不易器.

Gongsun Yang countered. “A man of ambition cannot be slow to take decisive action. Times have changed and all states are struggling to find appropriate reforms in order not to be left behind. Qin cannot take the risk of falling behind. A ruler must show determination and ignore the naysayers and traditionalists. Original ideas are often the target of mockery and people with foresight are often doubted. Fools would not know why victory was achieved long after the battle. Men of great insights know the nature of a problem even before it occurs. Thus, it is a waste of time to explain policies to the foolish populace. To make the state of Qin a great power, we must manage the populace well by applying the reforms I recommended.”

Gan Long spoke next.

“The people of Qin value the policies passed down by our ancestors. These policies are sacred. Wise men do not attempt to change customs and habits of the people. Any drastic changes will cause disruption and confusion within the populace.”

“This could have come from the feeble-minded populace.” Gongsun pointed out. “The Xia, Shang, Zhou dynasties all had different systems because administrators then were aware that times were different. That’s why in spite of their differences, they could all rule successfully. Look at the powerful states surrounding us. They all have different circumstances. That’s why they have different systems. Wise men can create new systems. Foolish ones can only copy from yesterday’s successes. Those who are unable to implement new ideas are destined to fail.”

Some of the officials who had been following the debate thus far were leaning on Gongsun Yang’s side. His repeated mentions of failure reminded them of the numerous defeats that neighbouring Wei had caused them to suffer recently. There must be something that Wei was doing right and they were doing wrong.

Qin Xiao Gong was an observant man. He was very satisfied with Gongsun Yang’s performance at the debate. He went on to sign an edict, instructing his kingdom to enforce the reforms. Many conservative officials were eager to see Gongsun’s policies fail.

But Gongsun Yang was cautious and meticulous. To ensure success for his upcoming social experiment with the state of Qin, he first ordered China’s first ever population census. Officials were sent out to every corner of Qin to survey urban as well as rural populations and family sizes. It was a tedious process. The territory was vast but the numbers were manageable. With big data in hand, Gongsun Yang knew how much he could demand in terms of taxes and manpower from every family. His new policies would be known as the Shang Yang Reforms 商鞅变法。

Agricultural Economics

The first edict of the Shang Yang Reforms put forward in 359 BC was the Wasteland Reclamation 垦草令. Under this new edict, every piece of wild land in Qin had to be converted to agricultural land. Prisoners could regain freedom if they converted wasteland into arable land. The entire populace must be at least partly involved in agriculture. Farmers had to work on the same piece of land at least semi permanently. No one was allowed to move around like nomads. Food production targets would be continuously revised upwards but officials on the ground had to ensure that families were not overly burdened. Given that Qin had plenty of unused land, he attracted migration by offering land to any “foreigner” who wished to contribute to Qin’s agriculture. This not only increased the manpower for Qin, it cut down the manpower for other states. Those who migrated to Qin were aware of the strict laws, so only the right people went over.

Shang Yang also dictated that each family unit had to be kept small. Sons had to move out and cultivate their own piece of land when they came of age. Private land ownership was recognised and land could be sold or traded. Farmers were rewarded for high output and good harvests. Those who failed to meet production quotas could have their land seized or even be enslaved. Shang Yang dictated that citizens had to marry at a young age. Those with many children enjoyed tax benefits.

Qin Penal Code

This was put in place circa 356 BC. Before Shang Yang Reforms, citizen obligations, crime and punishment were applied following existing Taoist and Confucian philosophy. There were no functional laws that guided the judgement and actions of bureaucrats based on objective circumstances. Visitors to Qin often wrote that Qin people were crass, stubborn, illiterate and ill-disciplined. Shang Yang Reforms pulled no punches when it came to keeping them in line.

The new Qin laws came like a terrifying bolt of lightning. Qin citizens were mostly illiterate and out of touch with the more cultured states. Qin laws served a strong deterrent function by virtue of their harshness that bordered on barbarism. Overnight, Qin citizens lived in fear. Crimes which used to be common and non-serious suddenly became capital offences. Shang Yang Reforms were based on the assumption that citizenswere barbarians and only barbaric methods would work for them. One of Shang Yang’s most detested reforms was the abolishing of hereditary titles. Offsprings of nobles had to earn their own titles. Even with titles, nobles were not immune to punishment like in the past.

While titles could not be passed down, responsibility could. When one member of the family committed a crime, the entire unit in the community could be punished. 连坐法 divided all families into groups of 5s and 10s. Depending on the offence, punishment could be extended to 5 or 10 families. Those who reported the crimes of their neighbours would be rewarded instead of punished. This encouraged neighbours to keep an eye on one another. In the military, soldiers were also grouped into units of 5 men. If any one of them committed an offence, all 5 would be punished. Depending on the amount stolen, theft could be punished by dismemberment or execution. Neighbours who failed to report crime were punished by sectioning at the waist. Neighbours and even family members became suspicious of one another. Everyone was cold and fearful.

The new Qin laws applied to everyone in Qin regardless of rank or social status. Nevertheless, disobeying orders or prohibitions and insubordination were all punishable by death. Many nobles who were used to bullying and insubordination, were executed under Shang Yang’s new laws. The Crown Prince’s first tutor was punished with a face tattoo. His second tutor had his nose sliced. Shang Yang said that “a crown prince who commits a crime is punished as a commoner”. The horror would be imprinted on the boy’s mind. He knew well what a dangerously powerful man Shang Yang had become when he ascended the throne. Horrified by all the grisly punishments, educated Qin citizens started dumping their Confucian ethics to memorise the Shang Yang laws.

Under Shang Yang Reforms, Confucian books were made illegal. Confucius was a big fan of the practically defunct Zhou Dynasty. Shang Yang regarded Zhou customs and practices as backward and hence had to be destroyed. In his opinion, there would be no future in following the past. Confucianism was regarded as a stumbling block for Qin. Under guidance from Shang Yang, Qin Xiao Gong started a book burning exercise which would be carried on for generations. It’s important to note that while Confucius promoted education of the masses, Shang Yang discouraged it in order to keep the ruling and scholarly class small. That way, they would always have adequate manpower to fill the slots for labourers, soldiers and farmers.

After butchering the wayward and disobedient citizens, Shang Yang proceeded to cultivate loyalty. He did this by implementing a system of reward for military contributions – 20 levels of knighthood 20 级爵位. Even the poorest peasants who had made military contributions would be rewarded with titles and land of which Qin had plenty. Qin was never able to build up such a big army before this. Everyone was eager to go into battle and bring back a few enemy heads.

In 341 BC, Qin Xiao Gong who had been taking a backseat throughout the process of reformation, decided to put the Shang Yang Reforms to the test. He sent Gongsun Yang on a daring mission. He put soldiers under his command and ordered him to invade territories in his native state of Wei. At that time, Wei had barely recovered from an attack from the state of Qi and Qin Xiao Gong decided to seize the opportunity. However, the Wei army was still a force to be reckoned with. The commander was a general by the name of Gongzi Ang 公子卬. Gongsun Yang was acquainted with Gongzi Ang and he sent a letter to the latter, inviting him to a banquet to discuss a ceasefire. When Gongzi Ang was toasting and feasting, Gongsun Yang triggered the ambush and had him taken prisoner. Without a leader, the Wei army fell apart. As a result of the defeat, Wei ceded land west of the Yellow River to Qin.

Qin had finally scored a victory over Wei. Trickery was clearly part of it, but the results of the reforms were undeniable. Going by Confucian principles, the ambush would have been immoral. For his role in the war, Gongsun received 15 cities in the region of Shang as his personal fief. From then on, Gongsun Yang became known as Shang Yang 商鞅.

Vested with powers second only to the king, Shang Yang moved the capital from the city of Yue Yang 櫟阳 to Xian Yang 咸阳, far from the nobles who were too eager to assassinate him. He also demoted them to county governors, stripped their children of all titles. All governors had to take orders from the capital and earn their rank through performance in the military. The city of Xian Yang would remain Qin’s capital until the fall of the Qin Dynasty in 207 BC.

Understandably, Shang Yang was deeply despised by the Qin nobility and became vulnerable after the death of Duke Qin Xiao Gong. The next ruler, Qin Hui Wen 秦惠文, knew how powerful Shang Yang had become. If he had taken a back seat like his father, Shang Yang would almost certainly have usurped the throne. Accusing Shang Yang of plotting a rebellion, he let him have a taste of his own medicine and ordered the nine familial exterminations against his family. Desperate, Shang Yang sought refuge in Wei but Wei refused to accept him as he was a traitor. He went into hiding but no one would take him in for fear of being implicated and punished with 连坐.

Thanks to his own laws, Shang Yang was captured and executed by dismemberment with 5 chariots – another punishment invented by him. His whole family suffered the same fate. In spite of his “crime”, Qin Hui Wen kept the reforms enacted by Shang Yang. Following the execution of Yang, Qin Hui Wen turned away from the central valley south to conquer the Ba and Shu region. 5 generations later, the Qin Dynasty would rule the whole of China, adopting Shang Yang Reforms with only minor changes.

Warring States to Qin Dynasty

Qin’s path to domination did not go smoothly after Shang Yang’s reforms. There is no simple explanation for the other states to finally get conquered as they too were undergoing reforms. Below is the timeline that ultimately led to the unification under Qin. I can elaborate if I see enough interest in the subject. In the meantime, here is the summary.

318 BC, the 6 states of Han, Zhao, Wei, Qi, Chu, Yan formed an alliance against Qin. A two-year war ended with Qin emerging victorious. There were more than 80,000 casualties in that war.

316 BC, soon after victory, Qin conquered the regions of Ba and Shu (present-day Sichuan) and turned the new territories into the state’s food storage and production depot in preparation for invading Chu.

312 BC. Qin promised to give land away to Chu in exchange for Chu not to ally with Qi where Chu minister Qu Yuan was a diplomat. Ignoring Qu Yuan’s admonishments not to trust Qin, the duke of Chu broke their alliance with Qi but Qin rulers did not keep their promise.

307 BC. The dress code in the state of Zhao underwent a drastic transformation. Trousers became part of the Han Chinese wardrobe. Before that Han people wore robes. This made it difficult for them to master horsemanship. The duke of Zhao decided to follow the nomadic Hu (Scythian) people and introduced trousers to his people. Zhao would have the most powerful cavalry then but other states quickly followed.

306 BC. A diminishing Yue smelled blood and invaded the recently defeated Chu, hoping to gain something from the battle. Chu rose to the occasion and defeated an ailing Yue Kingdom would be decimated. Conquering Yue, Chu seemed to have taken the first big step towards unification.

298-295 BC. A long-drawn war of attrition between Qin and the alliance of Qi, Han, Wei ended with the defeat of Qin which was forced to give land away in exchange for a peace deal.

293-291 BC. Qin fought back and regained some ground from Han and Wei.

284 BC. Han, Zhao, Wei, Yan, Qin formed an alliance to crush Qi. Miraculously, Qi general Tian Dan defeated them. However, the war weakened Qi considerably.

278 BC. Qin invaded Chu, defeated the Chu army and captured the capital. A distraught Qu Yuan committed suicide.

265 BC. The Qin army ransacked what remained of the imperial court of the 800-year-old Zhou Dynasty. The warring states became warring kingdoms as all the dukes could start identifying as kings.

262-260 BC. A long-drawn war was started with Qin general Bai Qi invading the state of Zhao. At the Battle of Chang Ping, 400,000 Zhao soldiers surrendered. Bai Qi had every one of them executed. Bai Qi himself was later forced to commit suicide when the duke of Qin suspected him of plotting to usurp the throne. Incredibly, Zhao managed to regain its power. Without a capable general, Qin began losing battles. Qin king An Guo exchanged princes as hostages with Zhao as a peaceful gesture.

259 BC. Wei merchant Lu Bu Wei 吕不韦 while doing business in Zhao, came across a homeless man who was actually Qin Prince Ying Yi Ren 赢异人 who was held hostage in Zhao. Lu Bu Wei matched his concubine Zhao Ji 赵姬 with Ying Yi Ren. They soon had a son.

Lu went to Qin to make a deal with the childless Crown Princess to adopt Ying Yi Ren as her son. When Crown Prince An Guo ascended the throne, Ying Yi Ren, once Crown Prince An Guo’s least favoured son, became the crown prince.

250 BC. Ying Yi Ren returned to the Qin Kingdom with his wife Zhao Ji and his 9-year-old son, Ying Zheng. The latter had been groomed by Lu Bu Wei in Zhao. The former Qin hostage in Zhao ascended the throne as King Qin Zhuang Xiang 秦庄襄王.

247 BC. King Qin Zhuang Xiang died after just 3 years on the throne. He was succeeded by his son Ying Zheng with Lu Bu Wei acting as regent for the young king. With Lu Bu Wei playing the de facto king of Qin, Ying Zheng was further tortured by the shame brought on by rumours that his mother the Dowager was already pregnant with Lu Bu Wei’s child when she married Ying Yi Ren.

This meant that he could be Lu’s son. Not only had Lu manipulated the Ying family, his legitimacy to the throne was in question. To add oil to fire, his mother became pregnant, years after his father’s death.

238 BC. Fake eunuch Lao Ai staged a revolt after revealing that he was the father of Empress Dowager Zhao Ji’s children. Humiliated, the 21-year-old Ying Zheng had Lao Ai and his illegitimate children executed along with three generations and banished his mother from the palace. The children that his mother had with Lao Ai were stuffed into bags and beaten to death. Lu Bu Wei was sacked for his role in bringing Lao Ai into the palace. Lu later committed suicide as he knew that Ying Zheng was waiting for an excuse to have him executed.

230 BC. Qin king Ying Zheng became a sad and angry young man. Having lost everyone close to him, he vented his anger on the battlefield. He invaded the remaining kingdoms in the order of Han, Zhao, Wei, Chu. Yan, Qi.

227 BC. One of the most well known assassination on Ying Zheng was the failed attempt by Jing Ke 荆轲, a wandering swordsman sent by Prince Dan from the kingdom of Yan.

221 BC. The Qin army marched into the capital of the Qi kingdom. The Qi king surrendered. The Qin Dynasty began. The conqueror of all the warring kingdoms declared himself emperor Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇, ruling over a population of some 40 million.

Over a span of 1000 years, China’s landscape evolved from a cluster of tribes into an empire. If Shang Yang’s system of government was indeed superior to the rest, why did the Qin Dynasty last for only 14 years? Next was the Han Dynasty founded by Liu Bang who hailed from the former kingdom of Chu. The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC) was just a blip compared to the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD). Was it really the kingdom of Chu that emerged victorious and unified China?

No, in just 14 years, the Qin Dynasty changed the mindsets of Chinese people for the next 2000 years. The concept of a Chinese empire was cast in stone. Dynasties came and went but it was always the same empire – just different families who had the mandate of heaven to rule it. Periods when the empire was fragmented were sidelined in the history books even though the Spring Autumn Period was when China was probably at its most intellectual. From Qin onwards, the need for an empire, a divine emperor and obedient subjects would be engraved on the minds of Chinese people for thousands of years to come.

PS. Understanding China through history, literature and news. My books are written for those who know a bit of Chinese, are curious about things Chinese but can’t read much Chinese. Check out:

36 Dirty Tricks from Ancient China

Making Sense of the Three Kingdoms

Better a Whore than a Concubine